Listen: What are the hidden dangers of grief?

In a new podcast episode, a psychologist examines the stress that loss has on the body—and how society can help.

When we lose someone close to us, we often say we have a broken heart: But what if that’s not just a metaphor?

In her new book, The Grieving Body: How The Stress of Loss Can Be An Opportunity For Healing (Harper Collins, 2025), Mary Frances O’Connor, a psychology scholar at the University of Arizona, shares groundbreaking insights into the biological and physiological impacts grief has on our bodies.

O’Connor reveals how profound loss can lead to serious medical conditions, from heart attacks to immune system breakdowns, and explains why grieving can make us more vulnerable to diseases like cancer, pneumonia, and even autoimmune disorders.

In this episode of the Big Brains podcast, drawing on her personal experiences and extensive research, O’Connor outlines why our medical system—and society at large—needs to rethink how we support grieving individuals . She makes a powerful case for viewing grief not only as an emotional experience but as a medical event deserving careful monitoring and intervention, similar to pregnancy or chronic illness.

Read the episode’s transcript.

Source: University of Chicago

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Study may rewrite what we know about megalodon

The megalodon has long been imagined as an enormous great white shark, but new research suggests that perception is all wrong.

The study finds the prehistoric hunter had a much longer body—closer in shape to a lemon shark or even a large whale.

The researchers used a novel approach to estimate the shark’s total body length, moving beyond traditional methods that rely primarily on tooth size.

By examining megalodon’s vertebral column and comparing it to over 100 species of living and extinct sharks, they determined a more accurate proportion for the head, body, and tail.

The findings in the journal Palaeontologia Electronica suggest the prehistoric predator may have reached about 80 feet, or about two school buses in length. It also likely weighed an estimated 94 tons, comparable to a large blue whale, but with a body designed for energy-efficient cruising rather than continuous high-speed pursuit.

“This study provides the most robust analysis yet of megalodon’s body size and shape,” says Phillip Sternes, a shark biologist who completed his PhD at the University of California, Riverside.

“Rather than resembling an oversized great white shark, it was actually more like an enormous lemon shark, with a more slender, elongated body. That shape makes a lot more sense for moving efficiently through water.”

Great white sharks have a stocky, torpedo-shaped body built for bursts of speed, with a broad midsection that tapers sharply toward the tail. In contrast, lemon sharks have a leaner, more uniform body shape, with a less pronounced taper. Their longer, more cylindrical build allows for smoother, more energy-efficient swimming. If megalodon had a body structure more like a lemon shark, as this study suggests, it would have looked much sleeker than the bulky predator often depicted in popular media.

Sharks, like airplanes or Olympic swimmers, must minimize drag to move smoothly and easily.

“You lead with your head when you swim because it’s more efficient than leading with your stomach,” says Tim Higham, a biologist who contributed insights to the study on how animals move through water. “Similarly, evolution moves toward efficiency, much of the time.”

The study highlights how large aquatic animals including sharks, whales, or even extinct marine reptiles, follow similar patterns when it comes to body proportions.

“The physics of swimming limit how stocky or stretched out a massive predator can be,” Higham says.

The research also sheds light on megalodon’s swimming capabilities. While debates have raged over whether it was a high-speed predator or a slower, cruising hunter, the new findings suggest a balance. The shark likely swam at moderate speeds, with the ability to burst forward when attacking prey. Given its sheer size and energy demands, constant high-speed swimming wouldn’t have been efficient.

The study also indicates that as a newborn, a megalodon could have been nearly 13 feet long, roughly the size of an adult great white shark.

“It is entirely possible that megalodon pups were already taking down marine mammals shortly after being born,” Sternes says.

A key breakthrough of this study was identifying the lemon shark as the best living analog for megalodon’s proportions. Unlike the great white, lemon sharks have a more elongated body. When the researchers scaled up the proportions of a lemon shark to megalodon’s estimated length, it was a near-perfect match.

“This research not only refines our understanding of what megalodon looked like, but it also provides a framework for studying how size influences movement in marine animals,” Sternes says.

Beyond reshaping our understanding of megalodon, the study offers insight into why only certain animals can evolve to massive sizes.

“Gigantism isn’t just about getting bigger—it’s about evolving the right body to survive at that scale,” Sternes says. “And megalodon may have been one of the most extreme examples of that.”

Source: UC Riverside

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Is napping good for you?

A doctor and expert in sleep surgery explains why napping can interfere with your sleep cycle.

In Spain and in many Latin American countries, residents take a respite after lunch to sleep. “Siesta” time is an almost sacred tradition.

In some businesses in Japan, employees are encouraged to take a short rest with the hope that it will increase their alertness and productivity.

If you’re a fan, you’re not alone. About four out of five US adults—80.7%—reported taking at least one nap of 10 minutes or more in the past three months, according to a recent survey from the Pew Research Center. The same survey revealed that 30.5% of adults take one more than once a week.

Napping spikes among older adults. More than half of adults ages 80 and older say they napped in the past day. Among every other age group in the survey—including both the young (ages 18 to 29) and the older (ages 70 to 79)—about a third said they napped in the past 24 hours.

Here, Maria V. Suurna, professor of clinical otolaryngology at the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine and director of sleep surgery at UHealth–University of Miami Health System, addresses questions about napping:

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What’s behind high housing prices?

A new study looks at how the Great Recession, construction employment, and housing supply levels are linked.

The Great Recession occurred 17 years ago, from December 2007 to June 2009. Led by a crash in the housing sector, it was the deepest recession since World War II and resulted in noteworthy financial industry failures, serious economic contraction, and a significant rise in unemployment.

Recovery was historically slow, and some sectors never recovered their pre-recession vigor.

Residential housing, for example, is an industry that is still not fully recovered, almost two decades later. Construction sector employment and housing supply remain persistently below their pre-2008 levels. Thao Le, assistant professor at Georgia State University’s Robinson College of Business, wanted to find out why.

What she found was a direct connection between the economic downturn, construction labor supply, and housing construction.

So, if you want to know why home sales are down, home prices are up, and younger generations are delaying or abandoning the dream of home ownership, Le’s research offers an explanation.

A recent analysis by Zillow estimates that the U.S. is 4.5 million houses short in terms of what’s for sale or rent.

“I was struck by the housing shortage, and wondering why we don’t just build more,” says Le.

“There are many factors contributing to the shortage, but as I looked into it, it was clear that skilled construction labor was—and is—far below what it had been before 2008. I wondered about this persistent labor shortage, its cause, and its impact.”

Le’s research posed two questions:

• Did the Great Recession induce a long-lasting negative impact on employment in the construction sector, especially in housing construction?
• If so, did the reduction in construction workforce caused by the Great Recession play a role in the persistently low housing supply seen in the past decade?

Spoiler alert: yes and yes.

To test the impact of the recession on construction employment, Le considered the recession’s severity in different areas of the country from 2010 through 2019. (The 2019 end date removed economic impacts and anomalies due to the COVID pandemic.) She examined how construction employment and home building in areas with larger declines in house prices recovered relative to areas with less severe price decreases.

Unsurprisingly, areas where housing prices were more severely affected by the recession suffered more drastic construction job losses than those suffering only mild downturns. Le found that a 1% decrease in house prices in 2009 was associated with a 1.7%-2% reduction in construction employment in 2019. In real numbers, construction employment dropped 30% from its peak in 2005, and was up to only 88% of pre-recession levels by 2019.

In terms of housing supply, Le looked at numbers of building permits to measure home-building activity over the same period, noting that the number of housing permits dropped 74% from its peak in 2005. By 2019, housing permits were back up by only by 57%.

Is this a wage issue? No. Le found that construction labor wages grew in hard-hit areas more than general wages, and those areas also experienced steeper increases in house prices, pointing to more housing demand than supply in those areas.

Is this a shift in housing demand? No. The recovery of residential construction firms has been similar across all areas—those that suffered greater and lesser declines—indicating that there is no difference in demand in these areas.

Together, all of these factors point to a skilled labor shortage contributing to lower housing construction rates: Lack of skilled construction labor —> less residential construction —> less available housing inventory —> excess demand —> higher house prices.

It’s a causal relationship. Le’s estimates suggest that a 10% decrease in house prices during 2007-2009 caused a 17%-20% decrease in construction employment and a 3%-7% decrease in construction in 2019.

While she is careful to point out that housing construction employment is only one explanation for the relationship between the recession and sluggish building, “It is a significant contributor,” Le explains. “I estimate that it accounts for 20% to 40% of the decline in building permits resulting from the crisis.”

Le’s research was the first to uncover how this contraction in residential construction labor led to a reduction housing production for over a decade, thereby worsening housing affordability.

“My research highlights the need for region-specific policies aimed at addressing labor shortages in construction,” Le says.

“This is particularly true in areas hard-hit by downturns, to improve housing affordability. Programs to enhance training and attract skilled workers to the construction industry are essential for increasing housing supply and benefitting the wider housing market.”

The study appears in the journal Real Estate Economics.

Source: Georgia State University

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Expert: Your humidifier could do more harm than good

An environmental engineering expert warns that improper use of humidifiers could do more harm than good.

With allergy season here and this year’s flu season being the worst in more than a decade, those experiencing symptoms are looking for relief. Many turn to humidifiers to manage symptoms like a stuffy nose or dry throat.

How do ultrasonic humidifiers release toxic heavy metals?

“Ultrasonic humidifiers create a fine mist by vibrating water into tiny droplets,” says Andrea Dietrich, professor in civil and environmental engineering at Virginia Tech.

“As the water evaporates into the air, any dissolved minerals—including potentially toxic heavy metals like arsenic, cadmium, lead, and manganese—are left behind as airborne particles (also known as rock dust or white dust). If the water used to fill the humidifier contains these metals, they can become airborne and be inhaled, posing potential health risks.”

Tips for safe humidifier use

“Best practice is to fill your ultrasonic humidifier with distilled or reverse osmosis water, which contains very few or no minerals,” Dietrich says.

“Water treated with a water softener or carbon/ ion exchange filter to purify tap water should not be used. These replace minerals like calcium and magnesium with sodium and potassium, which will still generate dried minerals or rock dust when used in an ultrasonic humidifier.”

Consumers can also choose a humidifier that is not based on ultrasonic technology. Dietrich says thermal humidifiers are a great way to add moisture to the air without adding dried minerals or rock dust.

“Thermal units are known as warm mist humidifiers, vaporizers, or steam vaporizers,” she says.

“Evaporative humidifiers are another option and use a wick to adsorb a layer of water, which is then evaporated by a fan.”

Regardless of the type of humidifier, Dietrich stresses the importance of regular cleaning and maintenance to prevent microbial growth.

“Avoiding chemical disinfectants is also important, as they can become airborne and cause harm,” she says.

Why is tap water use in humidifiers problematic?

“When safe to drink, tap water can contain dissolved minerals like calcium, magnesium, sodium, iron, manganese, and traces of other metals at or below regulatory levels.” Dietrich says.

“When inhaled as airborne particles, these minerals can clog lung passages, exacerbate respiratory issues, and deposit toxic levels of metals in lung tissue. While beneficial when ingested, these minerals are not safe for inhalation.”

Inhaling particles into the lungs is unhealthy for anyone, but certain populations—including children and infants, elderly individuals, and those with respiratory conditions—are most at risk, she explains.

Potential long-term effects of manganese exposure

Dietrich published a study on long-term effects of manganese exposure. Manganese is a typical metal in many tap waters.

“The study did not measure manganese levels in the brain or lungs directly; however, inhaling manganese is known to cause lung irritation and neurological effects” she says.

“Modeled exposure levels in our study suggested that children’s inhaled dose of manganese from ultrasonic humidifiers could exceed recommended levels, posing risks for neurotoxicity and behavioral issues.”

Other steps to improve indoor air quality

“Increasing ventilation is important because bringing in fresh air can reduce particle concentration,” Dietrich says.” Opening a window can make a big difference. Air purifiers are another option when the weather is not conducive to opening windows and doors.”

She also advised consumers to be mindful of combustion sources and household products.

“Fireplaces, candles, cigarettes, as well as air fresheners, can worsen indoor air quality,” she says.

“While there are no US regulations governing indoor air quality in homes, consumers can take proactive steps to maintain good air quality.”

Source: Virginia Tech

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How do psychedelics affect sexuality and intimacy?

Researchers have just published the first paper of its kind reporting on the impact of psychedelics on sexuality and intimacy.

The paper in the Journal of Sex Research found that psychedelic experiences enhanced participants’ perceptions of their relationship quality, attraction to their current partner, and sexual activities.

“I think the biggest surprise for me was the increase in same-sex attraction…”

“People in clinical trials and people going on psychedelic retreats in other countries have talked about a broad range of positive effects, including greater self-insight and feeling more connected to other people. Could there be benefits for intimate relationships in the long-term?” says Daniel Kruger, research associate professor in the University at Buffalo School of Public Health and Health Professions and first author on the paper.

And what about benefits for people experiencing gender dysphoria? There haven’t been any studies in these areas, so Kruger and his colleagues from the University of Michigan Medical School, University of Exeter, and University of South Carolina Salkehatchie, as well as two psychedelic therapists, decided to explore this gap.

The researchers sent a survey to nearly 600 individuals who have used psychedelics, querying them on how their use of psychedelics affected various aspects of their sexuality, gender identity, and romantic relationships. The most common psychedelics that participants reported using were psilocybin mushrooms, LSD, ecstasy or molly, and ketamine.

The results found that 70% of participants reported perceived impacts of psychedelic experiences on their sexuality and/or sexual experiences, with 65% mentioning short-term effects and nearly 53% reporting long-term effects.

Approximately 10% says that psychedelic experiences influenced their gender identity and/or expression, with some describing experiences of gender fluidity and feeling “waves” from feminine to masculine.

“I think the biggest surprise for me was the increase in same-sex attraction, reported by a quarter of women and about one in eight men,” says Kruger, a trained psychologist who studies medical cannabis, emerging cannabinoids, and therapeutic use of psychedelics. “A third of those with other gender identities also reported changes. Most people did not experience this, but the fact that so many people did is striking.”

So, why study how users of psychedelics perceive the effects this class of drugs has on their relationships and sexuality?

“Many people think that psychedelics will be the next generation of psychiatric medications,” Kruger says, adding there hasn’t been a major advance since Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) like Prozac in the 1980s, “and psychedelics seem like they could be much more effective.”

But, he adds, people shouldn’t simply “think of psychedelics as a magic pill that just makes everything better.”

There are also hundreds of clinical trials using psychedelics, as well as legal psychedelic therapy programs in multiple states, including Colorado and Oregon.

“Psychedelic use may be at an all-time high among young adults, and many older adults are trying psychedelics for the therapeutic benefits,” he says.

“There are huge implications for public health when so many people are using psychedelics. We need to reduce risks and protect people from harms and educate people so they know what they are getting into.”

As this was the first study of its kind, it was meant to be broad and exploratory, according to Kruger, who plans to conduct further research to better understand what’s happening.

The research team has launched an updated version of the survey, which can be taken anonymously by adults who have used psychedelics.

Source: University at Buffalo

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Mice mistakes reveal surprises about learning

By revealing for the first time what happens in the brain when an animal makes a mistake, researchers are shedding light on the holy grail of neuroscience: the mechanics of how we learn.

The team pinpointed the exact moment mice learned a new skill by observing the activity of individual neurons, confirming earlier work that suggested animals are fast learners that purposely test the boundaries of new knowledge.

The federally funded work, which upends assumptions about the speed of learning and the role of the sensory cortex, and which the researchers believe will hold true across animal species including humans, appears in Nature.

“Looking at a tiny part of the brain in a mouse, we can understand how the brain learns, and we can make predictions about how the human brain might work,” says Kishore Kuchibhotla, a Johns Hopkins University neuroscientist who studies learning in humans and animals.

“The field of neuroscience has made great progress decoding motor activity and how the brain processes sight and sound. But a holy grail of this type of research is thought—what comes between the hearing and the doing—we’re all still trying to understand the patterns of brain activity that underly higher-order cognitive processes. These findings are a step in that direction.”

Although the ability to learn quickly would benefit any animal in the wild, animals studied in labs seem to learn slowly and methodically. It typically takes mice, for instance, thousands of tries to learn a task, several hundred at best.

Kuchibhotla’s lab previously found that animals’ performance doesn’t necessarily sync with their knowledge—or that animals might know a lot more than they demonstrate in tests. The lab also found that animals that seem to be slow learners might be testing their new knowledge. But by merely watching animals struggle at tasks, they couldn’t tell a slow learner from a strategic tester of boundaries.

“We are interested in the idea that humans and other animals may know things about the world, things that they choose not to show,” Kuchibhotla says. “Our core question is what is the neural basis of this distinction between learning and performance.”

The researchers taught mice to lick when they heard one tone but not to lick when they heard a different sound. From the moment training began, the team recorded the activity of neurons in the auditory cortex, an area of the brain associated with hearing and perception.

There were two major surprises. First, the mice learned in 20 to 40 tries, “extraordinarily fast,” according to Kuchibhotla. And second, this learning activity happened in the sensory cortex, something that has typically been associated with nonsensory brain areas.

“This work illustrates the importance of assessing how brain activity impacts behavior at different stages of the learning process and in different conditions,” says first author Celine Drieu, a postdoctoral fellow studying neuroscience at Johns Hopkins.

“Our results show that a sensory cortex does more than processing sensory inputs; it is also crucial to form associations between sensory cues and reinforced actions.”

When the mice continued to make errors, licking at the wrong times long after their neural activity showed they’d learned the task, their brain activity confirmed to the researchers that the mice knew the rules of the game—they were just experimenting.

“We were able to decode the cognitive driver of an error,” Kuchibhotla says. “We could tell if the animal was making a mistake or just wanted to give the other option a shot.”

Once the mice had mastered the task and ceased their exploratory behavior, this higher-order activity started to diminish, and the sensory cortex was no longer involved in the task.

“We think this means that animals are smarter than we think, and that there are distinct brain dynamics related to learning. You might know something, but there’s a parallel process related to how you use it. The brain seems wired to do that well, to allow us to toggle between performance and learning as we get better and better at something.”

Support for this work came from the Johns Hopkins Kavli NDI Distinguished Postdoctoral Fellows Program, the National Institutes of Health, the Johns Hopkins Kavli NDI Distinguished Graduate Student Fellowship, the National Institutes of Health, the National Science Foundation, and the Brain & Behavior Research Foundation NARSAD.

Source: Johns Hopkins University

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