How does brain activity change as strangers become friends?

Researchers investigated the brain activity of younger and older people while they interacted—and the results are surprising.

What happens in the brain when two people engage in joint creative activity and build a new relationship with one another in the process? ETH Zurich cognitive scientist, Ryssa Moffat investigated this question. She is a postdoctoral researcher at the Social Brain Sciences Lab within the Chair of Cognitive and Social Neuroscience.

Her study has now been published in the journal PLOS Biology. The setting was as follows: over a period of six weeks, 61 pairs met six times to engage in drawing together. The participants came from a younger age group (18 to 35 years) and an older age group (70 to 85 years) and were divided into 31 cross-generational pairs and 30 pairs of the same age.

When two minds engage

At the outset, the participants did not know each other and first had to become familiar with one another. At each session, the pairs first drew individually on separate sheets of paper, then drew together twice on a single sheet of paper. They were free to decide whether to take turns or draw simultaneously. They were allowed to converse throughout the session but were instructed to remain silent while drawing.

At each session, the researchers recorded participants’ brain activity with the help of wearable brain sensors. This enabled the researchers to investigate how the process of getting to know one another was reflected in the pairs’ brain activity. At the same time, the mobile sensors ensured that participants could move and respond to each other naturally, as in everyday life, without distorting the recorded signals.

The similarity of the brain activity was particularly crucial for the ETH researchers: to what extent do the brains of two people synchronize during an encounter? And how does this synchronization change over the course of repeated sessions? The focus was not on whether a pattern of brain activity corresponds to a specific subjective feeling such as liking or irritation.

Stronger feelings of closeness, more similar brain activity?

Moffat was interested in what researchers call “inter-brain synchrony”: when people perform a shared task such as drawing, each person’s brain reacts continuously to the other person’s actions—and the brains can be says to be “synchronized” when similar changes in brain activity occur simultaneously in both people

Previous studies on inter-brain synchrony suggested that the activity patterns of two brains become increasingly similar as people grow more familiar with one another. Accordingly, the ETH researchers led by Moffat initially expected that synchrony would increase over time, as the pairs adjusted to one another while engaging in drawing.

But the researchers were surprised: although the participants in cross-generational pairs felt closer to one another over the course of weeks, their patterns of brain activity did not become increasingly similar.

An unexpected age difference

“In the cross-generational pairs, brain synchrony was higher at the start—and it decreased from week to week,” as researcher Moffat shares.

“In the same-age pairs, it was the other way round: they started with lower synchrony, which increased over the course of the six weeks.”

Regardless of this trend, however, one thing became clear over the course of the weeks: in both groups, brain synchrony was higher when the couples drew together than when the individuals drew separately.

Consequently, collaboration led to greater synchronization of brain activity—initially in a similar manner for both groups. It was only over the course of the six weeks that the difference became apparent: while the brains of the same-age pairs showed increasingly similar activity, this synchronization tended to decline in among the intergenerational pairs.

Anticipating rather than being in sync

How can this difference be explained? A definitive answer is still pending. Thanks to the portable brain-scanning technology, Moffat can state that when two people come to feel closer, it’s not a given that their brains “tick” alike.

Moffat’s study takes a different approach here from many earlier studies on brain synchrony. These assumed that two people experiencing something together process similar stimuli—and that their brains therefore react in similar ways. Researchers refer to this model as “Common Cognitive Processing.”

By contrast, Moffat’s explanatory approach assumes that two people learn to better anticipate their counterpart’s behavior and adapt to it: What will the other person say next? How will they react to my suggestion? In research, this model is known as “Mutual Prediction.”

This model may explain the age differences that emerged in the study. This is because, as Moffat explains, the participants’ life experiences also play a role in mutual prediction: “The participants of the same age were mostly students with similar daily routines and quickly found topics they had in common. Younger and older people, on the other hand, first had to work out what they could actually talk about.”

For Moffat, this means: “Greater brain synchrony can also mean that two people are making a particularly strong effort to understand one another.”

Who leads, who follows?

These efforts are particularly called for at the outset of a relationship: when younger and older people meet for the first time, they initially find it harder to predict their counterpart’s behavior, explains Moffat.

“Peers often find common ground more quickly or already have it. Over time, however, they become more playful, surprising each other in their conversations and thereby making it harder for their counterpart to predict their behavior.”

In a second study published in the journal Acta Psychologica the researchers provide insights into why brain synchrony differs between younger and older people.

In this study, they examined the same encounters and measurement data from a different perspective: they investigated which recurring patterns of shared brain activity emerged during the encounters. The researchers identified seven so-called “two-brain states” that remained remarkably stable throughout the entire six-week study period.

One state was particularly noteworthy and lasted significantly longer in the intergenerational pairs than in the same-age pairs. In this state, the synchronization between the two brains was comparatively low. What stood out instead was a particularly strong connection within a single person’s brain—an internal synchronization between two areas in their own frontal lobe.

The researchers cautiously interpret this as an indication of a division of roles: the person with the stronger internal synchronization was more likely to adapt their behavior to that of the other. In most cases, this was the younger person—while the older person tended to take a leadership role. The researchers also found that same-age pairs were more likely to draw at the same time, whereas intergenerational pairs took turns more often.

New ground for social brain research

“Our study is the first to show, over a period of several weeks, how brain activity develops in younger and older people,” concludes Moffat.

Previous studies have focused on parent-child, teacher-pupil, doctor-patient, and romantic relationships. Older people have so far been largely overlooked in social brain research.

Over the long term, Moffat’s research could also reveal “how strangers become acquaintances and perhaps even friends”.

Source: ETH Zurich

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Team finds new layer of the human genome

A new study has uncovered an unexpected feature of human DNA linked to gene activity and the physical organization of DNA.

The findings, published in Cell, could change how scientists think about DNA organization, transcription, and genome function.

DNA and RNA are usually separate molecules inside cells, each with a different job. But small RNA building blocks, called ribonucleotides, sometimes become embedded in DNA during normal cellular activities. Scientists knew these RNA building blocks existed, but until now they did not know where they were located across the human genome or whether they served a purpose.

Storici’s team, working with collaborators at multiple institutions, created their detailed map of these RNA building blocks throughout human DNA. The researchers found that they are not randomly scattered. Instead, they are distributed in distinct patterns across the genome. The researchers call this genome-wide landscape of DNA-embedded ribonucleotides the human nuclear “ribome.”

“Ribonucleotides embedded in DNA have traditionally been viewed mainly as mistakes that need to be removed,” says Francesca Storici, a professor in the School of Biological Sciences and faculty member of the Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience at Georgia Tech.

“Our findings suggest a different perspective: they can influence the physical properties of DNA and may have biological functions that we are only beginning to understand.”

The team discovered that these embedded RNA building blocks are especially common near the starting points of active genes, where cells begin reading genetic instructions to make RNA. Their abundance also increases with gene activity. These regions experience physical stress as DNA is repeatedly accessed and used. The researchers found evidence that the embedded RNA building blocks influence how tightly the DNA twists and coils in these areas. This DNA twisting, known as supercoiling, is closely associated with transcription.

The findings suggest that these RNA building blocks are more than accidental leftovers from normal cellular processes. Instead, they can modulate DNA supercoiling, revealing a previously unrecognized connection between embedded ribonucleotides, DNA topology, and transcription.

“One of the most exciting findings is that processing ribonucleotides embedded in DNA can change DNA supercoiling,” Storici says.

“This provides a new connection between the chemical composition of DNA, its physical organization, and transcription.”

The work also may help scientists better understand diseases linked to problems removing embedded RNA from DNA, including rare autoimmune disorders. More broadly, the discovery could open a new area of investigation into the roles of embedded ribonucleotides in human genome biology.

By providing the first comprehensive map of these RNA marks in human nuclear DNA, the study shows that what once appeared to be simple molecular mistakes may actually contribute to how the genome is organized and functions. The discovery opens new opportunities to explore how embedded ribonucleotides influence DNA topology, transcription, and genome maintenance.

Additional collaborators across multiple institutions contributed expertise, resources, and scientific insights that greatly expanded the scope and comprehensiveness of the study.

Source: Georgia Tech

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How to spot dementia in your dog or cat

Difficulty sleeping at night, interacting less with owners, and showing signs of confusion or anxiety are often dismissed as “normal” signs of aging in pets. But these behaviors may be signs of dementia.

Just like humans, dogs and cats can develop dementia as they age—and the resulting behavioral changes can be easily mistaken for symptoms of other diseases.

Here, Joel White, a clinical assistant professor at the Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, shares guidance to help owners better understand changes in their pets’ behavior and learn how to care for animals living with dementia:

Signs of dementia in dogs and cats

Dementia in dogs and cats, often called cognitive dysfunction, develops when changes in the brain affect how pets think, learn and remember.

In dogs, signs of cognitive dysfunction can appear as early as 8 years old, with roughly 10% of dogs that age being affected.

“Prevalence rises steadily with age, reaching about 80% in dogs over 18,” White says.

In cats, symptoms typically emerge around age 10, with a similar age-related increase in prevalence—more than half of cats over age 15 show signs consistent with dementia.

“As veterinary medicine advances, many dogs and cats are living longer than they previously did, which increases the likelihood of developing this disease,” White says.

“In addition, we (veterinarians and owners) are becoming more aware of this disease and are likely better at recognizing and diagnosing it.”

Early signs of dementia include:

• Wandering aimlessly
• Having accidents in the house
• Struggling to navigate doorways or stairs
• Changes in hearing or responsiveness
• Vocalizing more than usual

Because these changes can overlap with other conditions, it is easy to confuse them, according to White.

“Difficulty with stairs might look like arthritis, while accidents in the house could be a sign of a urinary tract infection or kidney disease,” he says.

While dogs and cats may show similar symptoms, cats also tend to over-groom themselves to the point of developing bald spots.

“Cats are excellent at hiding illness from their owners and veterinarians, which can make them more challenging to diagnose,” White says.

Older cats also commonly develop other health conditions, especially hyperthyroidism, which occurs when the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone. This can cause changes in behavior and activity that may look similar to signs of dementia, making an accurate diagnosis even more important.

How vets diagnose dementia

When dementia is suspected, veterinarians will use questionnaires based on owners’ observations of their pets’ behavior to help identify cognitive dysfunction—the more signs a pet shows, the more likely the disease may be contributing to the changes.

“A comprehensive history is the most valuable tool when making a diagnosis of dementia in pets,” White says.

Veterinarians may also perform blood tests, combined with physical and neurologic examinations, to rule out other conditions that can cause symptoms similar to dementia.

The most definitive way to evaluate a pet for dementia-related changes in the brain is magnetic resonance imaging, or MRI. However, an MRI requires anesthesia and can be costly.

Supporting pets with dementia

Although there is no cure for dementia in dogs or cats, changes to a pet’s daily routine and environment can help manage symptoms and support quality of life.

Regular exercise—including leash walks and games of fetch for dogs, or food puzzles and interactive toys for cats—can help keep pets physically active and mentally engaged.

“This can be challenging when a pet has other health problems, such as severe arthritis,” White says.

“Many owners find creative alternatives to keep their older pets active. For example, swimming can be an option for larger pets, while gentle movement in a tub or outdoor time in strollers, carriers, or backpacks can provide activity for smaller ones.”

Spending regular quality time with your pets can also help support their well-being.

In addition, for pets severely affected by dementia, keeping their environment safe and predictable is essential because sudden changes can be stressful. Owners can close off areas where their pet might get hurt, pad sharp furniture corners and avoid major changes, such as rearranging furniture or moving to a new home.

Diet can also play a role in managing dementia.

Foods rich in medium‑chain triglycerides (MCTs) and antioxidants such as vitamin E and omega‑3s may help improve clinical signs. While manufactured diets containing these ingredients are available for dogs, similar options have not been developed for cats.

Veterinarians also can help owners determine which supplements may be appropriate for their pets.

When lifestyle and diet are not enough, medications can be considered as an option. However, pets can respond differently to medications, so they should always be used under the guidance of a veterinarian.

Keeping the bond strong in tough times

For many owners, the hardest part of caring for a pet with dementia is staying patient as the disease progresses. Watching a beloved pet struggle can be heartbreaking, and feeling frustrated at times is normal.

“It may be easy to forget that your pet is not choosing to cause problems, like waking you up at night or having an accident on the rug, especially when these things happen repeatedly,” White says.

“In those moments, it can help to pause, take a breath and remember that the pet is ill, not intentionally misbehaving.”

Dementia may change some aspects of life with an aging pet, but patience, compassion, and quality time can help owners continue to make the most of the years they have together.

Source: Texas A&M University

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Painless microneedle patch could detect kidney disease earlier

Researchers have been developing a minimally invasive method to improve kidney disease diagnosis in earlier stages.

Kidney disease is silent in its early stages, progressing without symptoms until the disease is advanced.

The new research from the lab of Srikanth Singamaneni, a professor in the mechanical engineering and materials science department, shows the early success of a microneedle patch that can be applied on the skin to quickly and safely capture biomarkers and quantify them accurately.

The patch detected early signs of kidney injury and may one day support home or point-of-care monitoring without requiring refrigeration.

Results of their research appear in Advanced Materials. It is the first study to show that encapsulating biomolecules on microneedles preserved their biological functions.

The research team, which includes Yixuan Wang, a doctoral student in Singamaneni’s lab, created microneedles coated with a metal-organic framework (MOF) that can sample interstitial fluid in the skin. The microneedles are coated with a material that creates a shell that detects and preserves neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) antibodies, which are an early biomarker of acute kidney injury. The MOF shell preserved the antibodies for up to four weeks at 50 C (122 F) without refrigeration.

“This metal-organic framework encapsulation is a simple and highly effective way to create microneedle sensors that are resilient to environmental challenges and provide a scalable path to minimally invasive biosensing for at-home or remote health monitoring,” Singamaneni says.

NGAL increases in the blood within hours of a kidney injury and is a clinically validated biomarker for kidney damage. However, because it requires drawing blood with a needle and cold-chain logistics, it has not been useful in home-based or resource-limited settings.

Previously, Singamaneni and collaborators established another type of microneedle patches that can look for biomarkers of disease. Adapting that low-cost, easy-to-use technology required them to create a biosensor with high sensitivity and a broader range, as well as addressing cold-chain logistics.

Additional collaborators on the research are from WashU Medicine and Texas A&M University.

This research was supported by funding from the National Science Foundation, the National Institutes of Health, the Congressionally Directed Medical Research Programs, and VA Merit.

Singamaneni and Jeremiah J. Morrissey are the inventors of the plasmonic-fluor technology, which has been licensed by the Office of Technology Management at Washington University in St. Louis.

Source: Washington University in St. Louis

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How does space travel affect women’s health?

As space missions become longer and ambitions for deep-space travel grow, scientists are working to understand how life beyond Earth may affect every system in the human body.

Two years after her initial study took flight, Begum Mathyk and collaborators are continuing to push the frontier of women’s health in space, this time by examining how altered gravity may affect female biology.

In a first-of-its-kind study, a team led by Mathyk, a physician-scientist in the University of South Florida Health Morsani College of Medicine obstetrics and gynecology department, set out to understand the impact of space travel on the vaginal microbiome.

The study in Frontiers in Microbiology demonstrated that parabolic flight can induce acute physiological stress and alter host microbiome interactions.

Their work provides the first evidence that altered gravity and spaceflight-related stress can significantly affect the vaginal microbiome in women, while having minimal effect on the oral microbiome.

“This study gives us an early indication that female biological systems respond differently to the unique conditions associated with space travel,” Mathyk says.

The vaginal microbiome plays an important role in women’s health, helping support immune function and maintain healthy tissue. Disruption to its microbial balance brought on by extreme physiological or psychological stress has been linked to inflammation, the increased potential for infection, and altered immune responses. In conditions such as endometriosis, microbial dysbiosis is associated with chronic inflammation, altered immune responses, and disease progression.

“Over the past few decades, the clinical relevance of the vaginal microbiome has extended beyond its traditional associations with bacterial vaginosis or vulvovaginal candidiasis,” Mathyk says.

“It has also emerged as a noninvasive biomarker for gynecological disease detection, cancer, pregnancy, and health monitoring.”

Despite its importance, changes to the vaginal microbiome have not yet been explored in space travel conditions, until now.

In the new study, four women of reproductive age participated in parabolic flights aboard a modified aircraft that simulates the periods of microgravity and hypergravity experienced similar to space travel. Mathyk and her colleagues found that parabolic flight caused greater site-specific changes in the vaginal microbiome than in the oral microbiome.

Participants also showed signs of increased physiological stress after spaceflight, including heightened cortisol levels, due to changes in their microbiomes. The findings point to the need for further research to determine the potential scope of those changes.

“These findings highlight the sensitivity of the vaginal microbial ecosystem to spaceflight stressors,” Mathyk says.

“They underscore the need for longitudinal and mechanistic studies to determine the persistence, clinical significance and potential health implications of these changes during longer-duration space missions.”

“Understanding how the microbiome responds to the unique physiological stressors associated with spaceflight is an important step toward understanding and protecting astronaut health, particularly women’s health,” says USF Health researcher Shalini Jain.

“Our study demonstrates that parabolic flight can induce site-specific changes in the microbiome of women, highlighting that different body sites may respond differently to the physical and physiological demands of spaceflight.”

The findings, she adds, provide an important foundation for understanding how the microbiome may contribute to human adaptation to spaceflight and may ultimately help inform strategies to support astronaut health during future space missions.

“This work also highlights the value of collaborative, interdisciplinary research in advancing our understanding of the human microbiome in space,” Jain says.

The study builds on Mathyk’s previous work examining women’s health in space, including the first gynecologic ultrasound studies in microgravity. Her research also includes an NIH-funded project using advanced tissue chips to better understand how the space environment affects female reproductive physiology and studies investigating how spaceflight may influence future fertility. She also collaborates with USF Health Voice Center researchers, Yael Bensoussan and Jamie Toghranegar to evaluate voice biomarkers for applications in space medicine.

Such work is becoming increasingly pertinent as space missions grow longer and the possibility of lunar habitation and deep-space travel moves closer to reality. In addition, astronaut corps include a growing proportion of women, and medical research has traditionally skewed toward males, leaving knowledge gaps in women’s health and sex-specific responses to spaceflight.

“It’s important to understand whatever we are exposed to as human beings,” she says. “Is it just a physiological adaptation, or is there a point when it will cause a problem for us or turn into a disease? Is it something that can be reversed later on? The whole space community is trying to understand this.”

As an OBGYN, she wonders what would happen if she has a patient one day who asks if there are any precautions she should take for space travel.

“Maybe they’ll be staying there for a month or years, maybe going on a honeymoon, whatever the case might one day be,” she says. “NASA is already talking about establishing a Moon base and future Mars missions. That raises so many health care questions for me and, of course, research and validation take time, so we need to begin building the evidence.”

Additional researchers from USF and the National Research Council Canada and the International Institute of Astronautical Sciences contributed to the work.

Source: University of South Florida

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Electronic skin for prosthetics senses temperature and pressure

An electronic skin with a sensing system that can detect pressure and temperature could someday be used to help amputees gain feeling in their prosthetics.

The work led by Washington State University researchers and published in the journal Cell Reports Physical Science, can sense at ten times a finer scale than current commercial glove sensors.

“This approach democratizes the production of medical-grade e-skins, making advanced tactile feedback viable for widespread clinical adoption,” says Hongyi Shen, graduate student in the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering and first author on the paper.

“This work lays a crucial foundation for a full bionic skin with both sensing and haptic stimulation functions on prosthetics.”

Haptic stimulation replicates the sense of touch. Providing even partial sensation for amputees could greatly improve their ability to perform tasks. While there are electronic skins available now, they are expensive and have low sensing resolution. They also often don’t fit people well and only cover small regions. In fact, the more that e-skins are made to a custom shape, the worse they perform in sensing ability. Furthermore, the large amount of data generated from the sensing arrays mean that they don’t work well in real-time.

“Often these devices are forced to compromise between comfort and mechanical reliability,” says Shen.

The WSU researchers developed a customizable sensing system for prosthetics that conforms to the freeform shape of limbs and better mimics real human skin in its sensing abilities. The sensor modules they created are thin-layered sandwiches that incorporate temperature and pressure sensors. The elements allow human-like tactile sensing, enabling reliable identification of surface texture and material properties.

The researchers used a “scan-model-print” manufacturing method that allows for high-density sensing at the same time as the personalized, 3D fabrication.

“The scanner basically scans the prosthetic and then, based on the geometry, we map our sensors as a multimodal sensing system with that geometry,” says Kaiyan Qiu, an assistant professor in the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering and corresponding author on the paper.

“This enables our sensing system to have seamless coverage over the freeform region on the prosthetics.”

The sensors are accurate and reliable and can measure both pressure and temperature at a high density across a flat or curved surface. Rather than requiring adhesives, modules of sensors snap together like Legos.

“Our main manufacturing method using 3D printing and laser cutting is relatively simple, so it could be relatively low cost and convenient,” says Qiu.

The project was partially supported by WSU’s National Science Foundation Research Traineeship in Next-Generation Robotics (NRT-LEAD), led by Prashanta Dutta, professor and director in the School of Mechanical and Materials Engineering. Dutta is also a corresponding author on the paper. Additional support was provided by Qiu’s WSU startup and Cougar Cage funds.

The researchers have submitted an invention disclosure for a provisional patent with the WSU Office of Research Innovation and Entrepreneurship team. They are also working on an actuator that will eventually convert the sensing signals of the e-skin to let an amputee know what they’re touching. That would entail converting the sensing signals to stimulation and signaling of nearby nerves.

Source: Washington State University

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The brain has a switch that shuts off chronic pain

Scientists have identified a switch in mice brains that shuts off chronic pain.

Deep at the base of the brain, a tiny cluster of nerve cells serves as the body’s natural pain reliever, dialing down pain signals traveling up the spinal cord. But nerve damage can flip this system into a hyperactive engine for chronic pain.

Now, researchers at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis have figured out why that switch flips and how to shut it off.

They identified, in mice, that certain receptors that reside on the surface of cells in the brain’s main alert and stress center act as biological brakes on pain. Previously known to influence stress in this region of the brain, these receptors also can turn off the pain engine to relieve chronic neuropathic pain following nerve injury.

The study in Current Biology opens new doors for developing therapies that specifically target this region of the brain, known as the locus coeruleus, to reduce chronic pain.

“Millions of adults live with chronic neuropathic pain caused by nerve damage,” says Jordan McCall, an associate professor in the Center for Clinical Pharmacology in the WashU Medicine anesthesiology department and the study’s senior author.

“The pain is difficult to treat, and traditional opioid medications bind to receptors throughout the entire body and brain, often leading to side effects, tolerance and addiction risk. Understanding how localized receptors in the locus coeruleus act as gatekeepers could lead to more targeted, effective pain therapies with fewer risks.”

Neuropathic pain occurs when damaged nerve fibers send relentless, misfired signals to the brain, causing shooting, stabbing or burning sensations. The condition frequently stems from diabetes, viral infections, or nerve compression, among other factors.

To understand how to stop these signals, McCall’s team, including co-first authors Chao-Cheng Kuo, a postdoctoral research associate, and Makenzie R. Norris, a former graduate student, focused on the locus coeruleus, a part of the brain that has been shown to play a role in pain regulation.

First, they confirmed that nerve injury turns this region into an active driver of pain. When they temporarily turned off locus coeruleus brain cells in mice, they observed reduced sensitivity to touch and heat among animals modeling neuropathic pain compared with healthy mice.

Next, they turned their attention to receptors on locus coeruleus brain cells that respond to opioids, and in particular, a type of opioid receptor known as mu. Mu opioid receptors are scattered throughout the brain and spinal cord. When the body’s naturally produced opioids or synthetic ones such as morphine and fentanyl land in the receptors’ pockets, pain throughout the nervous system lessens. Because the locus coeruleus is packed with these receptors, the researchers wondered if they play an important role in pain regulation.

They deleted the mu opioid receptors on only the locus coeruleus brain cells in mice with neuropathic pain. Without the receptors, the mice were even more sensitive to touch and heat compared with mice with mu opioid receptors still present in the locus coeruleus. Restoring the receptors to those same neurons reversed the hypersensitivity, effectively turning the pain off.

The result indicates that chronic pain may be impairing the ability of mu opioid receptors to tamp down the activity of brain cells in the locus coeruleus. Building on these findings, the researchers are exploring how to manipulate the locus coeruleus without affecting receptors across the rest of the nervous system. By designing therapies that specifically engage mu opioid receptors in this brain region, the researchers says they hope to pave the way for treatments that offer powerful relief for chronic neuropathic pain.

This work was funded by the National Institutes of Health; the National Science Foundation, the McDonnell Center for Systems Neuroscience, a Collaboration Support initiative for Translational Anesthesiology Research (COSTAR) award from the anesthesiology department at Washington University School of Medicine, and the Rita Allen Foundation with added financial help from the Open Philanthropy Project.

The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official view of the NIH.

Source: Washington University in St. Louis

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